## Category Archives: Uncategorized

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### Unit normal to a radial graph over sphere

Consider $\Omega\subset \mathbb{S}^n$ is a domain in the sphere. $S$ is a radial graph over $\Omega$.

$\boldsymbol{F}(x)=\{v(x)x:x\in \Omega\}$

What is the unit normal to this radial graph?

Suppose $\{e_1,\cdots,e_n\}$ is a smooth local frame on $\Omega$. Let $\nabla$ be the covariant derivative on $\mathbb{S}^n$. Tangent space of $S$ consists of $\{\nabla_{e_i}\boldsymbol{F}\}_{i=1}^n$ which are

$\nabla_{e_i}\boldsymbol{F}=v(x)e_i+e_i(v)\cdot x$

In order to get the unit normal, we need some simplification. Let us assume $\{e_i\}$ are orthonormal basis of the tangent space of $\Omega$ and $\nabla v=e_1(v)e_1$. Then

$\nabla_{e_1}\boldsymbol{F}=v(x)e_1+e_1(v)x, \quad \nabla_{e_i}\boldsymbol{F}=v(x)e_i, \quad i\geq 2$

Then we obtain an orthonormal basis of the tangent of $S$

$\{\frac{1}{\sqrt{v^2+|\nabla v|^2}}\nabla_{e_1}\boldsymbol{F},\nabla_{e_2}\boldsymbol{F},\cdots,\nabla_{e_n}\boldsymbol{F}\}$

We are able to get the normal by projecting $x$ to this subspace

$\nu=x-\frac{1}{v^2+|\nabla v|^2}\langle x,\nabla_{e_1}\boldsymbol{F}\rangle\nabla_{e_1}\boldsymbol{F}=\frac{v^2x-v\nabla v}{v^2+|\nabla v|^2}.$

After normalization, the (outer)unit normal can be written

$\frac{vx-\nabla v}{\sqrt{v^2+|\nabla v|^2}}$

Remark: Guan, Bo and  Spruck, Joel. Boundary-value Problems on \mathbb{S}^n for Surfaces of Constant Gauss Curvature.

### Principle curvature of translator

Suppose ${\Sigma\subset\mathbb{R}^{3}}$ is a translator in ${e_{3}}$ direction. Denote ${V=e_{3}^T}$ and ${A}$ is the second fundamental form of ${\Sigma}$. Then it is well know that

$\displaystyle \Delta A+\nabla_VA+|A|^2A=0 \ \ \ \ \ (1)$

Choose a local orthonormal frame ${\{\tau_1,\tau_2\}}$ such that ${A(\tau_1,\tau_1)=\lambda}$, ${A(\tau_2,\tau_2)=\mu}$ and ${A(\tau_1,\tau_2)=0}$ in the neighborhood of some point ${p}$. We want to change (1) to some expression on ${\lambda}$ or ${\mu}$. To do that, we need to apply both sides of (1) to ${\tau_1,\tau_1}$, getting

$\displaystyle (\nabla_VA)(\tau_1,\tau_1)=\nabla_V \lambda-2A(\nabla_V \tau_1,\tau_1)=\nabla_V\lambda \ \ \ \ \ (2)$

where we have used ${\nabla_V\tau_1\perp \tau_1}$. Similarly

$\displaystyle (\nabla_{\tau_k} A)(\tau_1,\tau_1)=\nabla_{\tau_k}\lambda$

$\displaystyle (\nabla_{\tau_k}A)(\tau_1,\tau_2)=(\lambda-\mu)\langle \nabla_{\tau_k}\tau_1,\tau_2\rangle$

Now let us calculate the Laplacian of second fundamental form

$\displaystyle (\nabla_{\tau_k}^2A)(\tau_k,\tau_1)=\tau_k(\nabla_{\tau_k}\lambda)-2(\nabla_{\tau_k}A)(\nabla_{\tau_k}\tau_1,\tau_1)-(\nabla_{\tau_k}\tau_k)\lambda$

$\displaystyle =\tau_1(\nabla_{\tau_1}\lambda)-2\frac{(\nabla_{\tau_k}A)(\tau_1,\tau_2)^2}{\lambda-\mu}.$

Then

$\displaystyle (\Delta A)(\tau_1,\tau_1)=(\nabla_{\tau_k}^2A)(\tau_k,\tau_1)= \Delta \lambda-2\sum_{k=1}^2\frac{|A_{12,k}|^2}{\lambda-\mu}.$

Combining all the above estimates to (1), we get

$\displaystyle \Delta \lambda+\nabla_V\lambda+|A|^2\lambda-2\sum_{k=1}^2\frac{|A_{12,k}|^2}{\lambda-\mu}=0.$

where we write ${A_{12,k}=(\nabla_{\tau_k}A)(\tau_1,\tau_2)^2}$. Using this equation and the other one on ${\mu}$, one can derive that if ${\Sigma}$ is mean convex then it is actually convex.

### Laplacian on graph

Suppose ${\Omega\subset \mathbb{R}^n}$ is a domain and ${\Sigma=graph(F)\subset \mathbb{R}^{n+1}}$ is a hypersurface, where ${F=F(u_1,\cdots,u_n)}$ is a function on ${\Omega}$. Define ${f=f(u_1,\cdots,u_n)}$ on ${\Omega}$. Then ${f}$ also can be considered as a function on ${\Sigma}$. How do we understand ${\Delta_\Sigma f}$?

Denote ${\partial_i=\frac{\partial}{\partial{u_i}}}$ for short. If we pull the metric of ${\mathbb{R}^{n+1}}$ back to ${\Omega}$, denote as ${g}$, then

$\displaystyle g_{ij}=g(\partial_i,\partial_j)=\delta_{ij}+F_{u_i}F_{u_j},\quad g^{ij}=\delta_{ij}-\frac{F_{u_i}F_{u_j}}{W^2},\quad \det g=W^2$

where ${W=\sqrt{1+|\nabla F|^2}}$ and ${F_{u_i}=\frac{\partial F}{\partial u_i}}$. Then one can use the local coordinate to calculate ${\Delta_\Sigma f}$

$\displaystyle \Delta_\Sigma f=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\det g}}\partial_{u_i}\left(\sqrt{\det g}\,g^{ij}f_{u_j}\right)$

$\displaystyle =g^{ij}f_{u_iu_j}+f_{u_j}\frac{\partial_{u_i}(\sqrt{\det g}\,g^{ij})}{\sqrt{\det g}}$

also one can see from another definition of Laplacian

$\displaystyle \Delta_\Sigma f=g^{ij}Hess(f)(\partial_i,\partial_j)=g^{ij}[\partial_j(\partial_i(f))-(\nabla_{\partial_j}\partial_i)f]$

$\displaystyle =g^{ij}f_{u_iu_j}-g^{ij}(\nabla_{\partial_j}\partial_i)f$

By using the expression of ${g^{ij}}$ stated above, we can calculate

$\displaystyle \frac{\partial_{u_i}(\sqrt{\det g}\,g^{ij})}{\sqrt{\det g}}=\frac{-F_{u_j}F_{u_{i}u_{k}}g^{ik}}{W^2}$

It follows from the definition of tangential derivative on ${\Sigma}$, see, that

$\displaystyle \langle\nabla^\Sigma f, e_{n+1}\rangle=g^{ij}f_{u_{i}}F_{u_{j}}=f_{u_{i}}F_{u_{i}}-\frac{f_{u_i}F_{u_i}|\nabla F|^2}{W^2}=\frac{f_{u_{i}}F_{u_{i}}}{W^2}$

then

$\displaystyle f_{u_j}\frac{\partial_{u_i}(\sqrt{\det g}\,g^{ij})}{\sqrt{\det g}}=-\langle \nabla^\Sigma f,e_{n+1}\rangle F_{u_iu_k}g^{ik}=-\langle \nabla^\Sigma f,e_{n+1}\rangle HW$

where ${H}$ is the mean curvature of the ${\Sigma}$. Combining all the above calculations,

$\displaystyle \Delta_\Sigma f=g^{ij}f_{u_iu_j}-\langle \nabla^\Sigma f,e_{n+1}\rangle HW$

### One example of blowing up corner

Consider ${u(x,y)=\sqrt{x^2+y^4}}$ on ${\mathbb{R}^2_+=\{(x,y):x\geq 0, y\geq 0\}}$. Notify ${\mathbb{R}^2_+}$ has a corner at the origin and ${u}$ is not smooth at the origin. ${u\approx x}$ when ${x\geq y^2}$ and ${u\approx y^2}$ when ${x\leq y^2}$. We want to resolve ${u}$ by blowing up the origin through a map ${\beta}$. After blowing up, ${W}$ looks like the following picture.

Denote ${W=[\mathbb{R}^2_+,(0,0)]}$ and ${\beta:W\rightarrow \mathbb{R}^2_+}$ is the blow down map. On ${W\backslash lb}$(near A), ${\beta}$ takes the form

$\displaystyle \beta_1(\xi_1,\eta_1)=(\xi_1^2,{\xi_1\eta_1})$

where ${\xi_1}$ is the boundary defining function for ff and ${\eta_1}$ is boundary defining function for rb. Similarly on ${W\backslash rb}$(near B), ${\beta}$ takes the form

$\displaystyle \beta_2(\xi_2,\eta_2)=(\xi_2\eta^2_2,\eta_2)$

where ${\xi_2}$ is a bdf for lb and ${\eta_2}$ is a bdf for ff. One can verify that ${\beta}$ is a diffeomorphism ${\mathring{W}\rightarrow \mathring{\mathbb{R}}^2_+}$. Let ${w=\beta^* u}$. Then ${w}$ is a polyhomogeneous conormal function on ${W}$. Its index can be denoted ${(E,F,H)}$ correspond to lb, ff and rb.

$\displaystyle E=\{(n,0)\}, F=\{(2n,0)\}, H=\{(2n,0)\}$

Suppose ${\pi_1}$ is the projection to ${x}$ coordinate. Consider ${f=\pi_1\circ \beta:W\rightarrow \mathbb{R}_+}$, ${f}$ is actually a ${b-}$fibration. Then the push forward map ${f_*}$ maps ${w}$ to a polyhomogeneous function on ${\mathbb{R}^+}$.

$\displaystyle f_*w=\pi_* u=\int_0^\infty u(x,y)dy$

In order to make ${u}$ is integrable, let us assume ${u}$ support ${x\leq 1}$ and ${y\leq 1}$. What is the index for ${f_* w}$ on ${\mathbb{R}^+}$?

$\displaystyle \int_0^1\sqrt{x^2+y^4}dy=\int_0^{\sqrt{x}}\sqrt{x^2+y^4}dy+\int_{\sqrt{x}}^1\sqrt{x^2+y^4}dy$

For the first integral, letting ${y^2/x=t}$

$\displaystyle \int_0^{\sqrt{x}}\sqrt{x^2+y^4}dy=x\sqrt{x}\int_0^1\sqrt{1+t^4}dt=c_0x\sqrt{x}$

For the second integral, letting ${x/y^2=t}$

$\displaystyle \int_{\sqrt{x}}^1\sqrt{x^2+y^4}dy=\frac{1}{2}x\sqrt{x}\int_x^1t^{-\frac{5}{2}}\sqrt{t^2+1}dt$

Since the Taylor series

$\displaystyle \sqrt{1+t^2}=1+\frac{1}{2}t^2-\frac{1}{8}t^4+\cdots,\quad \text{for }|t|<1$

Consequently

$\displaystyle \int_{\sqrt{x}}^1\sqrt{x^2+y^4}dy=a_0+a_1x+a_2x\sqrt{x}+\cdots$

Combining all the above analysis, the index for ${f_*w}$ is ${\{(n,0)\}\cup \{\frac{n}{2},0\}}$

From another point of view, the vanishing order of ${f}$ on each boundary hypersurface of ${W}$ are ${e_f(lb)=1}$, ${e_f(\text{ff})=2}$ and ${e_f(rb)=0}$. ${f}$ maps lb and ff to the boundary of ${\mathbb{R}^+}$. Therefore the index of ${f_*w}$ is contained in

$\displaystyle \frac{1}{e_f(lb)}E\overline{\cup}\frac{1}{e_f(\text{ff})}F=E\overline{\cup}\frac{1}{2}F$

Remark: Daniel Grieser, Basics of ${b-}$Calculus.

### Stereographic projection from center

Suppose we are doing stereographic projection at the center. Namely consider the following map

$\displaystyle \phi:\mathbb{S}^2\rightarrow \mathbb{R}^2$

$\displaystyle (x,y,z)\mapsto\frac{(u_1,u_2,-1)}{\lambda}$

where ${\lambda=\sqrt{u_1^2+u_2^2+1}}$. Then one can see ${u_1=\frac{x}{z}}$, ${u_2=\frac{y}{z}}$. Under this stereographic projection, a strip will be equivalent to some lens domain on the sphere.

Let us pull the standard metric of ${\mathbb{S}^2}$ to the ${\mathbb{R}^2}$. For the following statement, we will always omit ${\phi^*}$ and ${\phi_*}$. Calculation shows,

$\displaystyle dx=\left(\frac{1}{\lambda}-\frac{u_1^2}{\lambda^3}\right)du_1-\frac{u_1u_2}{\lambda^3}du_2=z(-1+x^2)du_1+xyzdu_2$

$\displaystyle dy=-\frac{u_1u_2}{\lambda^3}du_1+\left(\frac{1}{\lambda}-\frac{u_2^2}{\lambda^3}\right)du_2=xyzdu_1+z(-1+y^2)du_2$

$\displaystyle dz=\frac{1}{\lambda^3}(u_1du_1+u_2du_2)=z^2(xdu_1+ydu_2)$

therefore

$\displaystyle dx^2+dy^2+dz^2=z^2(1-x^2)du_1^2-2xyz^2du_1du_2+z^2(1-y^2)du^2_2$

$\displaystyle =\frac{1}{\lambda^2}(\delta_{ij}-\frac{u_iu_j}{\lambda^2})du_idu_j$

here we used the fact that ${(x,y,z)\in \mathbb{S}^2}$. Suppose ${\bar\nabla}$ is the connection on ${\mathbb{S}^2}$ equipped with the standard metric. We want to calculate ${\bar \nabla_{\partial_{u_i}}\partial_{u_j}}$. To that end, it is better to use the ${x,y,z}$ coordinates in ${\mathbb{R}^3}$

$\displaystyle \partial_{u_1}=z(x^2-1)\partial_x+xyz\partial_y+xz^2\partial_z$

$\displaystyle \partial_{u_2}=xyz\partial_x+z(y^2-1)\partial_y+yz^2\partial_z$

Since we know

$\displaystyle \bar\nabla_{\partial u_1}\partial_{u_1}=\left(\nabla^{\mathbb{R}^3}_{\partial u_1}\partial_{u_1}\right)^T=\nabla^{\mathbb{R}^3}_{\partial u_1}\partial_{u_1}-\langle\nabla^{\mathbb{R}^3}_{\partial u_1}\partial_{u_1},\partial_r\rangle\partial_r$

where ${T}$ means the tangential part to ${\mathbb{S}^2}$ and ${\partial_r=x\partial_x+y\partial_y+z\partial_z}$ is the unit normal to ${\mathbb{S}^2}$. Using the connection in ${\mathbb{R}^3}$, we get

$\displaystyle \nabla^{\mathbb{R}^3}_{\partial u_1}\partial_{u_1}=z^2\left[3x(x^2-1)\partial_x+y(3x^2-1)\partial_y+z(3x^2-1)\partial_z\right]$

$\displaystyle \langle\nabla^{\mathbb{R}^3}_{\partial u_1}\partial_{u_1},\partial_r\rangle=z^2(x^2-1)$

One can verify from the above equalities that

$\displaystyle \bar\nabla_{\partial u_1}\partial_{u_1}=2xz\partial_{u_1}$

Similarly

$\displaystyle \bar \nabla_{\partial_{u_1}}\partial_{u_2}=yz\partial_{u_1}+xz\partial_{u_2}$

$\displaystyle \bar\nabla_{\partial u_2}\partial_{u_2}=2yz\partial_{u_2}$

### Scalar curvature of cylinder

Consider the scalar curvature ${R_g}$ of a cylinder ${\mathbb{R}\times \mathbb{S}^{n-1}}$ with the standard product metric ${g_{prod}}$, where ${n\geq 2}$.

First approach, the cylinder is diffeomorphic to the puncture plane,

$\displaystyle \phi:\mathbb{R}^n\backslash\{0\}\longmapsto \mathbb{R}\times \mathbb{S}^{n-1}$

$\displaystyle x\rightarrow (\log|x|,\frac{x}{|x|})$

It is easy to verify that ${(\phi^{-1})^*g_{prod}=|x|^{-2}|dx|^2}$. One can calculate ${R_g}$ from the conformal change formula

$\displaystyle R_g=-\frac{4(n-1)}{n-2}|x|^{-\frac{n+2}{2}}\Delta |x|^{-\frac{n-2}{2}}=(n-2)(n-1)$

Second approach, remember the Ricci curvature splits on product manifold with product metric. Therefore

$\displaystyle R_g=R_{g_{S^n}}=(n-2)(n-1)$

From the above, we know that if ${n=2}$, then ${R_g=0}$ while ${R_g>0}$ if ${n\geq 3}$. I always get confused with this two cases. There is a nice way to see this result for ${n=2}$. ${\mathbb{S}^1\times \mathbb{R}}$ can be covered locally isometrically by ${\mathbb{R}^2}$ with Euclidean metric. Therefore ${R_g=0}$ in this case. However, ${\mathbb{R}^n}$ should cover ${\mathbb{S}^1\times \mathbb{R}^{n-1}}$ instead of ${\mathbb{R}\times \mathbb{S}^{n-1}}$.

### Unique continuation property on the boundary

I am writing a theorem proved by Jin Zhiren in his thesis.

Suppose $\Omega$ is a smooth domain in $\mathbb{R}^n$, $x_0\in \partial \Omega$ and $u$ is a harmonic function in $\Omega$. If there exists $A, b>0$ such that

$\displaystyle |u(x)|\leq Ae^{-\frac{b}{|x-x_0|}}\quad x\in \Omega$

for $|x-x_0|$ small, then $u=0$. If $n=2$, the same conclusion holds for the solutions of a general second order linear elliptic equation.

A borderline example for this theorem is $u$ be the real part of $e^{-1/z^\alpha}$, $\alpha\in (0,1)$. $u$ is harmonic in the right half plane and $u\leq Ae^{-1/|x|^\alpha}$ and consequently $D^\beta u(0)=0$.

### Newton tensor

Suppose ${A:V\rightarrow V}$ is a symmetric endomorphism of vector space ${V}$, ${\sigma_k}$ is the ${k-}$th elementary symmetric function of the eigenvalue of ${A}$. Then

$\displaystyle \det(A+tI)=\sum_{k=0}^n \sigma_k t^{n-k}$

One can define the ${k-}$th Newton transformation as the following

$\displaystyle \det(A+tI)(A+tI)^{-1}=\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}T_k(A)t^{n-k-1}$

This means

$\displaystyle \det(A+tI)=\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}T_k(A+tI)t^{n-k-1}$

$\displaystyle =T_0 t^n+\sum_{k=0}^{n-2}(A\cdot T_k(A)+T_{k+1}(A))t^{n-k-1}+T_{n-1}(A)$

By comparing coefficients of ${t}$, we get the relations of ${T_k}$

$\displaystyle T_0=1,\quad A\cdot T_k(A)+T_{k+1}(A)=\sigma_{k+1}I,\, 0\leq k\leq n-2\quad T_{n-1}(A)=\sigma_n$

Induction shows

$\displaystyle T_{k}(A)=\sigma_kI-\sigma_{k-1}A+\cdots+(-1)^kA^k$

For example

$\displaystyle T_1(A)=\sigma_1I-A$

$\displaystyle T_2(A)=\sigma_2-\sigma_1A+A^2$

One of the important property of Newton transformation is that: Suppose ${F(A)=\sigma_k(A)}$, then

$\displaystyle F^{ij}=\frac{\partial F}{\partial A_{ij}}=T_{k-1}^{ij}(A)$

The is because

$\displaystyle \frac{\partial }{\partial A_{ij}}\det(A+tI)=\det(A+tI)((A+tI)^{-1})_{ij}.$

If ${A\in \Gamma_k}$, then ${T_{k-1}(A)}$ is positive definite and therefore ${F}$ is elliptic.

Remark: Hu, Z., Li, H. and Simon, U. . Schouten curvature functions on locally conformally flat Riemannian manifolds. Journal of Geometry, 88(1${-}$2), (2008), 75${-}$100.

### Self-shrinker and polynomial volume growth

Proposition: If $M$ is an entire graph of at most polynomial volume growth and $H=\langle X,\nu\rangle$, namely $M$ is a self-shrinker. Then $M$ is a plane.

Proof: Suppose

$\displaystyle v=\frac{1}{\langle \nu, w\rangle}$

Then one can derive the following equation

$\displaystyle \Delta v=\langle\nabla v,X\rangle+|A|^2v+2v^{-1}|\nabla v|^2$

Multiplying both sides by $e^{-|X|^2/2}$ and integration on $M$, which makes sense because of the polynomial volume growth, we get

$\int_M (\Delta v-\langle\nabla v,X\rangle)e^{-\frac{|X|^2}{2}}d\mu=\int_M (|A|^2v+2v^{-1}|\nabla v|^2)e^{-\frac{|X|^2}{2}}d\mu$

However, integration by parts shows the LHS is zero. Thus $A\equiv v\equiv 0$, $M$ must be a plane.

### Some calculations of sigma_2

On four-manifold ${(M^4,g_0)}$, we define Shouten tensor

$\displaystyle A = Ric-\frac 16 Rg$

and Einstein tensor and gravitational tensor

$\displaystyle E=Ric - \frac 14 Rg\quad S=-Ric+\frac{1}{2}Rg$

Suppose ${\sigma_2}$ is the elemantary symmetric function

$\displaystyle \sigma_2(\lambda)=\sum_{i

Thinking of ${A}$ as a tensor of type ${(1,1)}$. ${\sigma_2(A)}$ is defined as ${\sigma_2}$ applied to eigenvalues of ${A}$. Then

$\displaystyle \sigma_2(A)= \frac{1}{2}[(tr_g A)^2-\langle A, A\rangle_g] \ \ \ \ \ (1)$

Notice ${A=E+\frac{1}{12}Rg}$. Easy calculation reveals that

$\displaystyle \sigma_2(A)=-\frac{1}{2}|E|^2+\frac{1}{24}R^2 \ \ \ \ \ (2)$

Under conformal change of metric ${g=e^{2w}g_0}$, we have

$\displaystyle R= e^{-2w}(R_0-6\Delta_0 w-6|\nabla_0 w|^2) \ \ \ \ \ (3)$

$\displaystyle A=A_0-2\nabla^2_0 w+2dw\otimes dw-|\nabla_0w|^2g_0 \ \ \ \ \ (4)$

$\displaystyle S=S_0+2\nabla_0^2w-2\Delta_0wg_0-2dw\otimes dw-|\nabla_0 w|^2g_0 \ \ \ \ \ (5)$

We want to solve the equation ${\sigma_2(A)=f>0}$, which is equivalent to solve

$\displaystyle \sigma_2(A_0-2\nabla^2_0w+2dw\otimes dw-|\nabla_0w|^2g_0)=f$

This is an fully nonlinear equation of Monge-Ampere type. Under local coordinates, the above equation can be treated as

$\displaystyle F(\partial_i\partial_j w,\partial_kw,w,x)=f$

where ${F(p_{ij},v_k,s,x):\mathbb{R}^{n\times n}\times\mathbb{R}^n\times\mathbb{R}\times\mathbb{R}^n\rightarrow \mathbb{R}}$. This equation is elliptic if the matrix ${\left(\frac{\partial F}{\partial p_{ij}}\right)}$ is positive definite. In order to find that matrix, we need the linearized operator

$\displaystyle L[\phi]=\frac{\partial F}{\partial p_{ij}}(\nabla_0^2\phi)_{ij}=\frac{d}{dt}|_{t=0}F(\partial_i\partial_j w+t\partial_i\partial_j\phi,\partial_kw,w,x) \ \ \ \ \ (6)$

Using the elementary identity

$\displaystyle \frac{d}{dt}\rvert_{t=0}\sigma_2(H+tG)=tr_gH\cdot tr_gG-\langle H, G\rangle_g. \ \ \ \ \ (7)$

for any fixed matrix ${H}$ and ${G}$. Now plug in ${H=A}$ is Schouten tensor and ${B=-2\nabla_0^2\phi}$. One can calculate them as

$\displaystyle tr_g H\cdot tr_g G=\langle \frac{1}{3}Rg, G\rangle_g \ \ \ \ \ (8)$

Then we get

$\displaystyle L[\phi]=\langle S,G\rangle_g=-2\langle S,\nabla^2_0\phi\rangle_g$